In addition, GST-PICK1 was coimmunoprecipitated

with myc-KIBRA when coexpressed in HEK293T cells and this immunoprecipitation was abolished in the presence of myc epitope blocking peptide, confirming the specificity of the interaction between KIBRA and PICK1 see more in vitro (Figure 1C). Immunoprecipitation from mouse P2 brain fractions using a specific anti-KIBRA antibody revealed that PICK1, GluA1, and GluA2 are associated with KIBRA in vivo (Figure 1D). Moreover, other known AMPAR trafficking regulators such as Glutamate Receptor Interacting Protein 1 (GRIP1), N-ethylmaleimide-sensitive factor (NSF), and Sec8 were also present in KIBRA complexes (Figure 1D) (Dong et al., 1997, Mao et al., 2010 and Song et al., 1998), while 4.1N protein and the NR1 subunit of NMDA receptors were not part of this complex. These data suggest that KIBRA may play

a role in the regulation of AMPAR trafficking in neurons. To test this hypothesis, we generated specific KIBRA shRNAs (Figure S1B, available online) and analyzed the cell-surface expression of AMPARs. Knockdown of KIBRA had no effect on the steady-state level of AMPA receptor subunits analyzed using cell-surface biotinylation assays (Figures S1C and S1D). We then examined the role of KIBRA in activity-dependent trafficking of AMPARs in cultured hippocampal neurons using an Ibrutinib ic50 established pH-sensitive GFP-GluA2 (pH-GluA2) live receptor recycling assay (Ashby et al., 2004 and Lin and Huganir, 2007). Perfusion of N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) for 5 min induced robust internalization of surface pH-GluA2 from the soma and dendrites as we have previously observed ( Lin and Huganir, 2007) in both control and shRNA transfected neurons ( Figures 2A–2D). However, the rate of pH-GluA2 recycling following NMDA washout was significantly accelerated in KIBRA KD neurons ( Figures 2A, 2B, 2C, and 2E), reminiscent of the AMPAR trafficking phenotype

in PICK1 KO neurons ( Lin and Huganir, 2007). A similar result was obtained with a second independent KIBRA shRNA construct ( Figure S2A–S2D). Cotransfection Mannose-binding protein-associated serine protease of KIBRA shRNA and shRNA-resistant KIBRA constructs fully rescued the recycling phenotype, ruling out the possibility of off-target effects of the shRNA ( Figures 2A–2E). These results indicate that KIBRA regulates the activity-dependent recycling but not the initial internalization of AMPARs, demonstrating a role for KIBRA in retaining internalized GluA2. It is possible that KIBRA does this by inhibiting the exocyst complex as overexpression of KIBRA localizes to sec8-containing vesicles ( Figure S2E). We next generated KIBRA KO mice (Figure S3A) to examine its role in synaptic transmission, plasticity, and behavior in vivo. Correct homologous recombination, germline transmission, and genotype were confirmed by Southern blot using the indicated probe after PCR genotyping (Figure S3B). Homozygous KO animals are viable and have no gross developmental defects or anatomical abnormalities (Figure S3C).

After reading abstracts and reviewing the full text, 33 studies (26 – India, 5 – Bangladesh, 2 – Pakistan) fulfilled the a priori selection criteria and were included in the meta-analysis ( Table 1). Fourteen of the titles represented recent data not available in past reviews [18], [37] and [63] and included studies using more advanced molecular methods for strain characterization. Both frontline urban hospitals and rural community health centers served as surveillance sites for collecting samples. Studies characterized both symptomatic

and asymptomatic rotavirus cases from rainy and dry seasons. A large variation in laboratory methods to detect rotavirus types was observed, with earlier studies (before 1994) relying principally on ELISA and PAGE, and later studies utilizing more advanced molecular RT-PCR techniques. Prior to 1994, two studies Regorafenib cell line utilized PAGE, two utilized ELISA, and three utilized RT-PCR. From 1995 to 1999, 11 studies were published with 4 reporting PAGE techniques and 6 reporting RT-PCR; one study did not specify laboratory methods. The 15 studies from 2000 to 2009 relied entirely upon RT-PCR

for genotyping, which represents the first time period that all results were fully based on RT-PCR techniques. Overall, due to their later discovery in humans, 25 of the 33 studies (76%) did not use typing agents for detection of G12 while 11 of the earlier studies (33%) did not determine the G9 type. This is reflected in the proportion of “untypeable” strains that were R428 supplier observed. When untyped strains were considered in the denominator of all tested specimens, 23.7% were untypeable prior to 2000. However, after 2000, when molecular typing methods were used and included primers for the G9 and G12 strains, the proportion of untypeable strains was reduced to 13.7%. A similar trend was noted in the results for the VP4 P-type, where 21.3% of strains could not be typed before 2000, compared to 16.3% after 2000, probably due to the wider range of primer sets used. The 33 studies provide data on 9,153 rotavirus samples examined for the VP7 G-type, while 21 studies present results

for 4,842 VP4 P-types. Among typeable G-samples (n = 7703) over the period covered in this review (1983–2009), the four most globally ADP ribosylation factor common types, G1 (31.4%), G2 (29.4%), G3 (3.6%), and G4 (13.8%), represented approximately 78% of total samples. During this same time period, G9 (11.2%), G-Mixed (6.9%), and G12 (3.7%) were also identified ( Table 2). For the P-types, between 1983 and 2009, P[4] (29.3%) and P[8] (44.7%) represented approximately 75% of all the 4148 typeable P-strains, with P[6] (15.2%) and P-Mixed (10.8%) also present ( Table 3). However, the percentages of uncommon G-types and mixed P-types reported may not accurately reflect the true proportions circulating in the population due to the number of untypeable strains showing current techniques.

The triplet with a single connection or “directed edge” (pattern 2) is weakly underrepresented (ratio = 0.7 for both uniform and nonuniform random models; p = 0.0016 and 0.0064, respectively), the triplet with diverging connections or “V-out” (pattern 4) is overrepresented (ratio = 2.2 and 2.3 for the uniform and nonuniform random models; p = 0.043 and 0.022, respectively). The “feedforward” (pattern 10) is highly overrepresented (ratio = 3.2 and 3.5; p = 0.014

and 0.002, respectively). Transitivity means that if there is a connection from cell A to cell B, and from cell B to cell C, there will also be a connection from A to C. Because a preference for transitive connectivity has been reported in other complex networks (Holland and Leinhardt, 1970 and Milo et al., 2004), we tested this

hypothesis in the MLI network and therefore grouped the patterns according to their property of transitivity (Bang-Jensen and Gutin, 2008; Supplemental Experimental Procedures; Figure S5A). Capmatinib in vivo check details Indeed, we found that intransitive patterns tend not to be observed in the data (e.g., the “three-loop” pattern 11, and the “mutual in” pattern 7), or appear to be underrepresented (the “three-chain” pattern 6, ratio = 0.5 compared to prediction of the nonuniform random model), whereas transitive patterns (e.g., the feedforward pattern 10, and the “regulating mutual” pattern 14) tend to be overrepresented (ratio = 3.5 and 6.3 compared to the prediction of the nonuniform random model). We therefore divided the observed patterns into two groups: transitive

and intransitive. By this definition, patterns 10, 12, 14, 16 are transitive, and patterns 6, 7, 8, 9, 11, 13, 15 are intransitive (Figure 5A). Patterns 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 are excluded, as the property is not applicable due to the low number of connections. We observed significantly more transitive and significantly fewer intransitive patterns compared to both predictions (Figure 5B; uniform random: p = 0.0001 and 0.0016, respectively; nonuniform random: p = 0.0001 and 0.0026, respectively). This result highlights that random connectivity models are not sufficient to describe the connectivity of the MLI network, in the particular, with respect to their transitive property. To confirm the large deviation of the data compared to both models, we next calculated the average chemical clustering coefficient CC and anticlustering coefficient ACC for triplets and quadruplets, treating bidirectional and unidirectional connections identically. We observed a higher clustering coefficient CC in the data than predicted by both random connectivity models ( Figure 5C; p = 0.0020 and 0.0023, respectively). The values of CC for the uniform random and nonuniform random predictions are similar due to the weak distance dependence of the probability of chemical connections ( Figures 2A, 2B, and S2). We also found that ACC was not correctly predicted by the random connectivity models ( Figure 5C; p = 0.0012 and 0.0028, respectively).

e., 89 interface sequences from 39 species) to identify pairs of interface segments with the following properties: (1) they share Screening Library datasheet the same symmetry center (position 111), (2) each contains amino acids of opposite charge

at interface residues flanking the symmetry center (i.e., positions 109 and 112), and (3) the charges at positions 109 and 112 in one interface are the opposite of those found at the other interface (Figures 1B and 1C). By swapping parts of interfaces with these properties, we reasoned that we could create chimeric interface segments that would disrupt self-pairing, while simultaneously directing pairing to a complementary yet different interface chimera. One example of such an interface chimera is shown in Figure 1B. A Drosophila Ig2 and silkworm Ig2 interface share an asparagine at position 111, the Drosophila sequence has an aspartic acid at position 109 and a lysine at 112, and the silkworm sequence has an arginine at position 109 and an aspartic acid at 112. Two unique half-interface C646 research buy segments were then created by flanking the shared symmetry center with amino acids 108–110 and 112–114 from the Drosophila and silkworm sequences, respectively. We predicted

that the resulting chimeras would not support self-binding due to charge incompatibility ( Figure 1B) but that the two chimeras would

bind to each other, because the contacts on each half-interface were seen in a wild-type interface. Two pairs of complementary chimeric interface segments (indicated Ig2.3C/Ig2.4C and Ig2.10C/Ig2.11C) were introduced through mutagenesis of Drosophila Ig2 domains with the most similar interfaces ( Figures 1B and 1C; also see sequence alignment in Figure 1D). To test the binding specificity of each altered variable domain, we inserted complementary Thiamine-diphosphate kinase pairs of Ig2 interfaces into ectodomains comprising the same Ig3 and Ig7 domains to generate pairs of closely related chimeric isoforms. We first assessed interactions by using the ELISA-based binding assay in which Dscam1 protein ectodomains were clustered in cis in a limited fashion (presumably tetramers) ( Wojtowicz et al., 2007). The binding of two ectodomains each comprising the N-terminal ten domains was tested as previously described ( Wojtowicz et al., 2007). Wild-type isoforms exhibited strong homophilic interaction, but homophilic binding of each chimera was reduced to background levels ( Figure 1D). Importantly, heterophilic binding of each chimera pair was observed at a similar level to that observed with homophilic binding of the control wild-type isoforms. To gain a more quantitative measure of binding specificity, we performed analytical ultracentrifugation (AUC).

These conflicting

results emphasize the importance of using modern immunohistochemistry and other relevant techniques in the assessments of intratumoral neutrophils. The baseline NLR has been associated with prognosis in several studies. Yamanaka et al. evaluated prospectively a cohort of 1220 patients with advanced gastric cancer in Japan [38] and established a significant relationship between high NLR (≥2.5) and poor survival in a multivariate model. Shimada et al. evaluated a total of 1028 patients with primary gastric adenocarcinoma who underwent gastrectomy [39]. On multivariate analysis, after adjusting LGK-974 for tumor stage, a high NLR (≥4.0) was an independent risk factor for reduced survival. Jung et al. evaluated 293 patients who had undergone gastrectomy with curative intent [40]. A multivariate analysis

established a significant relationship between high NLR (≥2.0) and poor OS and between high NLR (≥3.0) and poor disease-free survival. In esophageal cancer, Sharaiha et al. performed a single-center retrospective analysis of 295 patients who underwent attempted curative esophagectomy [41]. In multivariable analyses, elevated NLR (≥5.0) was associated with significantly worse disease-free survival and OS. Recently, Selleckchem Alectinib the first study to demonstrate that the pretherapeutic NLR can be used as a predictor of the chemosensitivity to neoadjuvant chemotherapy has been published [42]. The study was a retrospective evaluation of 83 patients undergoing neoadjuvant chemotherapy of cisplatin and 5-FU followed by esophagectomy for advanced esophageal cancer. The NLR was measured before chemotherapy, and the pathologic response to chemotherapy was evaluated. A multivariate analysis revealed that elevated pretreatment NLR (≥2.2) and lymph nodes metastasis were independently associated with poor pathologic DNA ligase responses. Thus, the pathologic response

rate was 21% in patients with an NLR of ≥2.2 compared with 56% in the patients with an NLR < 2.2. The interpretation is that high baseline NLR hinder chemotherapy effect. These findings require larger, prospective, randomized studies for validation. In total, the independent prognostic role of tumor-infiltrating neutrophils is now also demonstrated in gastric cancer and should be elucidated further. Moreover, elevated preoperative NLR predicts poor prognosis following resection. It may be utilized as a simple, reliable prognostic factor for risk stratification and will provide better treatment allocation. However, it has to be mentioned that the cut-off values for NLR differed greatly between studies. It would therefore be relevant for future studies to optimize the NLR cut-off.

But the basic principles NLG919 of the model, including the requirement for LGN variability and correlations, receptive field elongation, and a compressive nonlinearity in the transformation between LGN activity and Vm will likely still apply. In the same way that LGN variability propagates to the cortex, variability in retinal

ganglion cells might propagate to the LGN: retinal response variability is contrast dependent (Berry et al., 1997) and correlated between nearby cells (Meister et al., 1995). Variability in retinal ganglion cells, however, is much lower than that of LGN neurons (Levine and Troy, 1986, Levine et al., 1992, Levine et al., 1996 and Kara et al., 2000). Some noise may therefore be introduced at the level of LGN by intrathalamic or feedback

circuitry (Levine and Troy, 1986). These results, taken together with the strong synaptic connectivity between retinal ganglion cells and LGN neurons, suggest that a large portion of LGN variability and correlation may originate in the retina. Although response variability is observed throughout the brain, we can suggest on the basis of our data selleck chemicals llc that this variability may not need to be generated independently at each stage of processing. A large fraction of variability can be passed from area to area as long as sufficient correlations exist among the neurons in the input area. It should be emphasized, however, that the strength of the correlations need not be particularly high. A correlation of ∼0.2 among LGN neurons was sufficient to explain the response variability in simple cells, and similar correlation levels (0.1–0.3) have been observed in spike responses of primate V1 (Kohn and Smith, 2005, Smith and Kohn, 2008 and Gutnisky and Dragoi, 2008) and other cortical areas (Gawne et al., 1996, Cohen and Newsome, 2008 and Cohen and Maunsell, 2009). From previous work

(Finn et al., 2007), it is known that weak (low contrast) preferred Mephenoxalone stimuli generate disproportionately large spike responses compared to strong (high contrast) null-oriented stimuli, even though they evoke similar mean depolarizations. This selective amplification is caused by the higher Vm variability for the former stimuli. We can now attribute that increase in variability to the combination of two factors: increase in variability at low stimulus strength in the thalamic inputs and an increase in the number of simultaneously active inputs for preferred stimuli. These factors seem generic: strong stimuli have been observed to reduce variability in a number of cortical areas (Churchland et al., 2010). It seems likely, then, that mechanisms similar to the ones we have identified here might operate throughout the neocortex. Experiments were performed on anesthetized adult female cats aged 4–6 months. Anesthesia was induced with a ketamine-HCl (30 mg/kg i.m.)/acepromazine maleate (0.3 mg/kg i.m.) mixture and maintained by intravenous infusion of sodium thiopental (1–2 mg/kg/hr) or propofol (5–10 mg/kg/hr) and sufentanil (0.75–1.

We MS 275 found that endocytosis of APP is essential for the activity-dependent convergence of APP/BACE-1 in neurons (Figure 6). Specifically, experimental paradigms blocking clathrin-mediated

endocytosis (or APP endocytosis) also abrogated APP/BACE-1 convergence (Figures 6C and 6D), and such conditions led to expected stalling and clustering of APP and clathrin (Figure 6E), suggesting that a recycling-dependent pathway (as opposed to homotypic fusion) is responsible for this convergence. What is the relevance of our findings to human disease? Studies show that amyloid plaque deposition is most conspicuous in the “default mode network”—a circuit that is metabolically active during unidirected mentation (Buckner et al., 2009)—leading to the hypothesis that activity-dependent amyloidogenesis may play a role in AD (Bero et al., 2011). Though our experiments do not address this directly, our finding that APP/BACE-1 convergence is exaggerated in stimulated neurons as well as AD brains is consistent with this idea. However, other studies implicate defective Aβ clearance (and not increased Aβ production) as the primary pathologic event in AD (Mawuenyega et al., 2010), and further work is needed to clarify these issues. In summary, our studies uncover fundamental trafficking strategies

by which neurons largely restrict APP (substrate) and BACE-1 (enzyme) in distinct organelles—thus limiting Aβ biogenesis in physiologic states (Figures 1 and 2); define a trafficking CHIR-99021 cost pathway by which APP and BACE-1 converge upon induction of neuronal activity (Figures 3, 4, 5, and 6); and, finally, our data from human brains (Figure 7) suggest potential relevance of these mechanisms in human disease. Several constructs old were obtained from other laboratories, as mentioned in the Acknowledgments. The CFP/YFP tags in the BACE-1:CFP/APP:YFP constructs were replaced by GFP or mCherry, cloned in-frame, and confirmed by sequencing (see Figure S1).

The promoter in the NPYss construct (Banker laboratory) was swapped with CMV. The clathrin:GFP and Rab-5:mCherry constructs were obtained from Addgene. Antibodies used for biochemistry were the following: APP (1565-1; Epitomics), BACE1 (MAB931; R&D), TfR (clone H68.4; Invitrogen), Tubulin (clone DM1A, Sigma), anti-pan cadherin (ab22744, Abcam), KDEL (Ab12223, Abcam), Rab11 (71-5300, Invitrogen), GM130 (610822, BD Transduction), and Rab5 (108011, Synaptic Systems). D-AP5, dynasore, picrotoxin, and memantine were from Sigma and Alexa 488 Transferrin was from Molecular Probes. Beta-secretase Inhibitor II (Calbiochem) was prepared in DMSO and neurons were treated with final 0.5 μM inhibitors for 24 hr. Primary hippocampal neurons were obtained from postnatal (P0–P1) CD-1 mice and cells were transfected using Lipofectamine-2000 (Invitrogen) as described previously in Roy et al. (2012). Briefly, dissociated neurons were plated at a density of 50,000 cells/cm2 in poly-D-lysine-coated (1.

, 2012). Reprogramming technologies, such as iPSC or iN generation, theoretically “erase” the existing epigenetic state of a cell and establish an alternative state. Such epigenetic states are determined in part by direct modifications of genomic DNA, including methylation or hydroxymethylation, as well as by binding of chromatin factors such as histones that modify selleck screening library the accessibility of genomic DNA (Tomazou and Meissner, 2010). Yet other regulators,

that include both protein and non-coding RNA factors, serve to refine the epigenetic state of individual genetic loci. Additionally, the three-dimensional structure of chromatin, determined by yet poorly defined nuclear elements, may selleck chemical broadly impact the epigenetic program. In the context of patient-derived cultures, historical events of potential relevance to disease—such

as aging or toxin exposure—may theoretically underlie a persistent change in epigenetic state, and this may in turn impact cellular phenotypes. The cell-type-specific epigenetic state of a starting cell—in contrast to genetic factors—is predicted to be “erased” in the context of somatic cell reprogramming. Thus, epigenetic reprogramming models, such as patient iPSC-derived neurons, may not display a given disease phenotype, if it is epigenetic in origin. Conversely, a disease-associated phenotype that is apparent in reprogramming-derived cell models is predicted to be genetic in origin. A caveat is that reprogramming has often appeared incomplete: “epigenetic memory” persists in iPSC-derived cultures as to their cells of origin (Kim et al., 2010 and Kim et al., 2011c) as well as with directed reprogramming

(Khachatryan et al., 2011). Going forward, it will be of high interest to directly assess epigenetic Bumetanide changes associated with disease states in reprogrammed neuron models. In some contexts, “incomplete reprogramming—which retains significant epigenetic memory—may be desirable. More speculatively, directed reprogramming to neurons may present an advantage over iPSC reprogramming followed by differentiation; single step reprogramming to neurons is perhaps more likely to retain epigenetic memory of prior events, leading to disease-related cellular phenotypes. However, epigenetic memory in skin cells may not be relevant to CNS disorders. In summary, the application of reprogramming technologies toward the generation of accurate and simple human cell models of adult neurological disorders is a promising approach. It is perhaps unexpected that diseases of aging such as familial Alzheimer’s disease would be recapitulated to some extent “in a dish.” This reflects an emerging theme, in which underlying molecular and cellular culprits to these diseases of aging may often be present throughout life, whereas unknown “second hits” ultimately lead to the full expression of disease.

, 1996, Marc et al., 2003, Punzo and Cepko, 2007 and Strettoi and Pignatelli, 2000). First, biomedical engineers have developed surgically implanted retinal “chip” prosthetics (Chader et al., 2009, Gerding et al., 2007 and Shire et al., 2009) that can be electronically controlled by an external camera to enable optical stimuli to trigger RGC firing. Retinal implants have Alisertib in vitro restored simple shape discrimination to blind patients (Humayun et al., 2003 and Yanai et al., 2007), indicating that artificial

stimulation of RGCs in vivo can create a useful visual experience. Second, genes encoding optogenetic tools, including light-activated ion channels (Bi et al., 2006, Lagali et al., 2008 and Tomita et al., 2010), CHIR99021 transporters (Busskamp et al., 2010), or receptors (Caporale et al., 2011 and Lin et al., 2008), can be introduced with viruses to bestow light-sensitivity on retinal neurons that survive after the natural photoreceptive cells have degenerated. Expression of optogenetic proteins in RGCs (Caporale et al., 2011 and Tomita et al., 2010), bipolar cells

(Lagali et al., 2008), and remnant cones (Busskamp et al., 2010) can reinstate light-elicited behavioral responses in mouse models of RP. Third, embryonic stem cells can be differentiated into photoreceptor progenitors in vitro (Lamba et al., 2006). Injecting these progenitors into blind animals results in integration of photoreceptors in the retina and restoration of some electrical activity in response to light (Lamba et al., 2009).

Each of these strategies has shown promise for restoring visual function, but they all require highly invasive and/or irreversible interventions that introduce hurdles to further development as a therapeutic approach. Implantation of retinal chips or stem cell-derived photoreceptors requires invasive surgery, while exogenous expression of optogenetic tools leads to permanent genetic alterations in retinal neurons. Retinal chip prosthetics rely on extracellular Mephenoxalone electrical stimulation of RGCs, which can be cytotoxic when excessive (Winter et al., 2007). Stem cell therapies carry potential for teratoma formation (Chaudhry et al., 2009). Viruses that deliver optogenetic tools can have off-target effects and may elicit inflammatory responses (Beltran et al., 2010). While the potential permanence of optoelectronic, stem cell, or optogenetic interventions could be favorable in the absence of complications, any deleterious effects of these treatments could be very difficult or impossible to reverse. Here, we report an alternative strategy for restoring visual function, based on a small molecule “photoswitch” that bestows light sensitivity onto neurons without requiring exogenous gene expression.

, 2010b, Skinner et al.,

2010 and Cohn et al., 2009). fMRI data in these data sets were collected for other primary uses and are not reported here. No additional data KU-57788 concentration sets were assessed. Experiment 1 contained a scanned study phase and poststudy resting phase, followed by a source memory test outside of the scanner (Table S1). In addition, a prestudy repetition phase served to make some materials familiar (Table S1), and study and test phases incorporated some blocks of these familiarized materials to support investigation of stimulus novelty (to be described elsewhere). Study-test stimuli consisted of novel proverbs (Asian origin), repeated proverbs (Asian origin), and proverbs known in advance (English origin), which allowed us to manipulate familiarity based on repetition and prior cultural knowledge. To facilitate comparison with other studies, including the three we obtained, we analyzed Selisistat mw only novel items here. However, between-subjects performance for novel items was highly correlated with overall performance (r(15) = 0.83, p < 0.001). Eighteen right-handed young adults, all fluent in English, participated in the experiment (11 female; aged 21 to 34 years, mean age 26.1). Participants were screened for the

absence of neurological and psychiatric conditions and received financial remuneration for their participation. All procedures were approved by research ethics boards at the University of Toronto and Baycrest Centre for Geriatric Care. One participant was excluded for outlier behavioral performance (more than four quartiles from the median), and one was excluded due to outlier hippocampus volume. Due to technical issues, we acquired resting-state data for only 15 participants. Scans for two participants were discarded due to excess motion artifact. In total, 16 participants were entered into structure-function correlations and 13 into resting-state analyses. Two lists of proverbs were

prepared, one containing 80 common English proverbs (e.g., “Too many cooks spoil the broth”) and the other 160 Asian proverbs (e.g., “A single hair can hide mountains”; for a complete list, Terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase see Poppenk et al., 2010a). The Asian list was randomly split into “repetition” and “novelty” sets of 80 Asian proverbs for each participant. Three phases were of greatest importance to our analyses (Table S1): (1) a study phase (participants were scanned with fMRI) in which proverbs were novel or familiar (only novel items were considered in the current investigation); (2) an eyes-closed resting phase between study and test (participants were scanned with fMRI); and (3) a source memory test for all of the proverbs encountered in the study phase.