, 2011, LeDoux, 2000, Maren, 2001, Fanselow and Poulos, 2005, Davis et al., 1997, Rosenkranz buy Ku-0059436 and Grace, 2002,

Cousens and Otto, 1998, Paré et al., 2004, Maren and Quirk, 2004, Quirk and Mueller, 2008 and Haubensak et al., 2010). The indirect connections between LA and CEA include the basal (BA), AB, and intercalated (ITC) nuclei (Pitkänen et al., 1997 and Paré et al., 2004). As with unconditioned threats, PAG outputs to motor control regions direct behavioral responses to the threat. While damage to the PAGvl disrupts defensive freezing behavior, lesions of the PAGdl enhance freezing (De Oca et al., 1998), suggesting interactions between these regions. Whether the CEA and PAG might also

be linked via the VMH or other hypothalamic nuclei has not been carefully explored. While most studies have focused on freezing, this behavior mainly occurs in confined spaces where escape is not possible (Fanselow, 1994, Blanchard et al., 1990, de Oca et al., 2007 and Canteras et al., 2010). Little work has been done on the neural basis of defense responses other than freezing that are elicited by a conditioned cues (but see de Oca and Fanselow, 2004). An important goal for future work is to examine the relation of circuits 3-MA concentration involved in innate and learned behavior. Electric shock simulates tissue damage produced by predator-induced wounds. However, it is difficult to trace the unconditioned stimulus pathways with this kind of stimulus. Recent studies exploring interactions between circuits processing olfactory conditioned and unconditioned stimuli is an important new direction (Pavesi et al., 2011). Another form of Pavlovian defense conditioning involves the association between a taste CS and a nausea-inducing US. The circuits underlying so called conditioned taste aversion also

involve regions of the amygdala, such as CEA and the basoloateral complex (which includes the LA, BA, and ABA nuclei), as well as areas of taste cortex (Lamprecht and Dudai, 2000). However, the exact contribution of amygdala areas to learning and performance of the learned avoidance out response is less clear than for the standard defense conditioning paradigms described above. While much of the work on threat processing has been conducted in rodents, many of the findings apply to other species. For example, the amygdala nuclei involved in responding to conditioned threats in rodents appear to function similarly in rabbits (Kapp et al., 1992) and nonhuman primates (Kalin et al., 2001, Kalin et al., 2004 and Antoniadis et al., 2007). Evidence also exists for homologous amygdala circuitry in reptiles (Martínez-García et al., 2002, Davies et al., 2002 and Bruce and Neary, 1995) and birds (Cohen, 1974).