Recent evidence demonstrates a link between phthalate exposure and adverse health effects in both animal and human models, raising the question of whether usage of these compounds requires regulation��a concern that KPT-330 1393477-72-9 recently prompted the signing of a European ban in 2005 on certain phthalates in all childcare articles and toys [11]. An overview of the literature regarding the potential effects of phthalates on human health is presented, followed by data from 20 subjects whose blood, urine, and sweat were tested for phthalate compounds.2. BackgroundPhthalates are synthesized as an ester of benzenedicarboxylic acid (also known as phthalic acid) and are valued for their ability to promote both flexibility and stability in plastics [2].

Diisononyl phthalate (DINP), diisodecyl phthalate (DIDP), and di-2-ethyl-hexyl phthalate (DEHP) are the most common types of compounds used within the phthalate family, with DEHP representing the highest proportion of produced phthalates as a component in the mass produced plastic, polyvinyl chloride (PVC) [12, 13]. Because phthalates are not covalently bound as plasticizers, they are able to migrate from phthalate-containing items into air, dust, water, soil, and sediment, leading to widespread human exposure through ingestion, inhalation, and dermal contact [5, 14]. Once they enter the body, phthalates undergo a series of phase I hydrolysis and phase II conjugation reactions and are subsequently excreted in feces and urine [15]. Existing literature suggests that phthalate clearance from the body is rapid and primarily via urinary excretion with only a slight cumulative potential.

Thus, the major mechanism of detection is through screening urine for monoesters [16�C18]. This was originally thought to be an accurate measure of all phthalate exposure; however, recent work regarding phthalate metabolism suggests it is likely to underestimate exposure to phthalates with long alkyl chains, such as DEHP and DINP, which undergo further metabolism prior to excretion [8]. Both primary and secondary phthalate metabolites are biologically active [19�C22]. Conclusive evidence on levels of phthalate bioaccumulation within specific organs and tissues of the body has not been available thus far. 2.1. Human ExposureThroughout the latter parts of the 20th century and the current 21st century, multiple urine samples analyzed from populations worldwide have consistently demonstrated phthalate exposure in up to 98% of participants, including pregnant women [6, 8�C10, AV-951 23�C25].