Further, the methods used in this study are being adapted to study the role of neuropeptides whose functions remain unknown. Prolonged exposure to the attractive odorant benzaldehyde in the absence of food results in a decreased attractiveness dependent on an association with the absence of food [23]. Lin et al. [24•] showed that insulin signaling was key

for this type of associative learning and used a conditional allele of daf-2 to distinguish insulin’s role in different phases of memory. INS-1 and DAF-2 were each shown to be necessary for benzaldehyde-starvation associative plasticity, and rescue experiments showed that INS-1 released from ASI and AIA acted on DAF-2 receptors on the AWC sensory neurons to mediate benzaldehyde-starvation associative plasticity. Taking advantage

of the temperature sensitive daf-2 allele, Lin et al. [24•] disrupted signaling during Bafilomycin A1 the training or testing Palbociclib ic50 phases of the assay to reveal that DAF-2 signaling is only partially involved in memory acquisition, but absolutely necessary for memory retrieval. Prolonged exposure to a different odorant also detected by AWC, isoamyl alcohol, leads to decremented attractiveness that is not dependent on feeding state 25, 26•• and 27••. Chalasani et al. [27••] found that the decreased attractiveness, as well as decreased responsivity of AWC to isoamyl alcohol was dependent on NLP-1, a buccalin-related peptide expressed in AWC. Based on the expression pattern of orphan neuropeptide receptors they managed to link NLP-1 with NPR-11 using mutant analysis followed by biochemical confirmation. Expressing nlp-1 in AWC and npr-11 in AIA interneuron rescued the behavioral deficits associated with each mutant. They propose a neuropeptide feedback loop, whereby NLP-1 released from the AWC sensory neuron acts on AIA to induce release of INS-1, which acts on AWC to modulate odor sensitivity. When grown at a temperature between 15 and 25 °C, well-fed worms placed on a temperature gradient thermotax to their previous cultivation temperature and then move isothermally 28 and 29. This preferred

cultivation temperature is reset with extended cultivation with food at a new temperature, however, worms will thermotax away from a cultivation temperature if it is associated with starvation 28 and 30•. A forward genetic screen HAS1 uncovered the aho-2 mutant (later determined to be an allele of ins-1), which was severely deficient in thermosensory starvation conditioning [31]. Kodama et al. [30•] found that starvation-induced INS-1 release inhibits the core thermotaxis interneurons AIY, AIZ, and RIA via DAF-2. In the current model, thermosensory neurons AFD and AWC store a memory of cultivation temperature, while neuroendocrine and monoamine signals act on the interneurons to modulate the circuit in response to feeding state. This differs from gustatory and olfactory conditioning, where insulin signaling acts on the sensory neurons themselves.

The INF-γ release in samples #1 to #6 after stimulation with both peptide pools seemed to be slightly decreased, mainly after cryopreservation in the HSA-based medium with 10% DMSO and the protein-free medium with 5% DMSO, but not in the remaining samples. Nevertheless, storage of PBMC for several months in the gas phase of liquid nitrogen seems not to have an adverse effect on the specific functionality of PBMC. In summary, these results show, that cell viability, recovery and T-cell

functionality can be maintained for at least several months of cryogenic storage, using the cryopreservation protocols described here. Compared to FBS, the HSA-based and the protein-free media (5% DMSO) showed slightly poorer results, mainly in the functional assay. However, the GHRC I and IBMT-Medium I results were comparable Selleckchem ON-1910 to those Ibrutinib clinical trial of the FBS-based cryomedium, representing serum- or even protein-free alternatives. High-quality and reproducible cryopreservation is extremely important and demanding. It enables: standardized analysis of in-field studies; transport of samples to competence centers; simultaneous assessment of

samples reduces inter-assay variability; and retrospective analysis. However, cryopreservation can have tremendous effects on the recovery and functionality of cells. The high concentrations of salts and other solutes, induced by ice formation, cause damage through dehydration (Lovelock, 1953a and Mazur et al., 1972), cell shrinkage (Meryman, 1970 and Steponkus et al., 1983), and electric induced membrane breakdown (Steponkus et al., 1985 and Zimmermann and Neil, 1996). Therefore, a precise and rigorous appreciation of the impact of cryopreservation is required for interpreting the results of studies based on T-cell functionality. However, the outcomes of investigations concerning the effects of cryopreservation on the viability and functionality of T-cells are quite inconsistent. Several previous studies have indicated an adequate maintenance of function of cryopreserved PBMC compared to cells

in whole blood, measured using: proliferation assays (Allsopp et al., 1998, Jeurink et al., 2008 and Weinberg et al., 2009); cytokine production (Kreher et al., 2003, Kvarnstrom et al., 2004, Kierstead et al., Nintedanib (BIBF 1120) 2007 and Nilsson et al., 2008); apoptosis (Riccio et al., 2002), and HLA tetramer staining (Appay et al., 2006), while others suggest a loss of function (Owen et al., 2007). Therefore, standardized cryopreservation protocols and reliable PBMC-based assays such as enzyme-linked immunospot (ELISpot) assay and others, e.g. multi-parameter flow cytometry (Maenetje et al., 2010) are crucial for selecting candidates for large scale efficacy testing. Also, some researchers state that it is thawing and the potential overnight rest rather than the processing and cryopreservation that have detrimental effects on PBMC (Kreher et al.

1 (Stat-Soft,

Tulsa, learn more USA). Experimental data were fitted to the second-order polynomial model presented in Equation (1), and regression coefficients (β’s) were obtained. equation(1) Y=β0+β1X1+β2X2+β11X12+β22X22+β12X1X2where Y represents the dependent variable (estimated response) and β0, β1, β2, β11, β22 and β12 represent the equation coefficients. Analysis of variance (ANOVA) was performed for each response variable using the full models, and the p-values indicated whether the terms were significant. Terms that were not significant were removed from the final model. The significance of the regression was also evaluated using ANOVA. To verify the adequacy of the models, the experimental data were compared to the values predicted by the regression models. The average error between the experimentally observed values and values predicted by the model were calculated using Equation (2) equation(2) E(%)=100n∑i=1n|yexp−ypred|yexpwhere E is the average error, n is the number of experimental data points, yexp is the experimental value and ypred is the value predicted by the model. Conventional heating treatments were performed in a glass cell, and the cell content was heated by heat exchange with hot water in the jacket. The glass cell used was similar to the one

employed for ohmic heating but had a 5.5 cm diameter. The time/temperature conditions were the same for both processes, and the product was cooled in the same manner. selleck inhibitor Temperature was monitored using type T thermocouples which were inserted in the center of the cell. For the evaluation of conventional heating on anthocyanin degradation, only the central level of the design was analyzed; therefore, only blueberry pulp containing Orotidine 5′-phosphate decarboxylase 10 g/100 g solids content was used. The anthocyanins were extracted from a 2 g sample with 20 mL of acidified methanol (0.01 mL/100 mL HCl) by homogenizing for 1 h in a shaker (Marconi, Piracicaba, Brazil). After extraction, the sample was centrifuged for 20 min at 4 °C and 4757×g, and the supernatant was collected. To prevent degradation of the pigments, samples were flushed with nitrogen before storage, and during procedures, the samples were protected from light and high

temperatures. Acid hydrolysis was performed according to the methodology of Rodriguez-Saona and Wrolstad (2001) with the modifications proposed by Lima, Pinheiro, Nascimento, Gomes, and Guerra (2006). The methanolic extract, prepared as previously described, was used to hydrolyze the anthocyanins to aglycones by adding 3 mL of extract to 10 mL of a 2 mol L−1 HCl solution. The flask containing the mixture was flushed with nitrogen and immersed in boiling water for 1 h. After hydrolysis, the samples were cooled in an ice bath in the dark for 10 min prior to use. The hydrolyzed extract was passed through a sorbent C18 solid phase extraction (SPE) cartridge (Waters, Milford, USA). Anthocyanidins were adsorbed onto the cartridge, and water-soluble compounds were washed off.

In order for gene expression data to become accepted for routine use Autophagy Compound Library datasheet in HHRA, it is necessary to demonstrate that mRNA/protein expression profiles

can effectively predict the modes of action and biological outcomes of exposure at relevant doses, and to confirm that these data can be used to strengthen the foundation for HHRA and regulatory decisions. In this regard, it has been hypothesized that gene expression profiling will be extremely useful in identifying effects at low doses, and moreover, useful for distinguishing between doses that elicit an adaptive response vs. those that yield adverse effects (Boverhof and Zacharewski, 2006). To date, the application of gene expression profiling in regulatory toxicology has largely focused on qualitative identification of chemical modes

of action and transcription biomarkers that can predict specific toxicities. However, the utility of gene expression profiling in quantitative determination of threshold values (e.g., benchmark doses) has not yet been rigorously explored (Thomas et al., 2012). In the present study we investigate the utility of gene expression profiles derived from mice exposed to Printex 90 carbon black nanoparticles (CBNPs) by intratracheal installation to identify potential hazards, modes of action, and doses above which adverse effects may be expected for specific toxicological selleckchem outcomes. In addition, we quantitatively compare benchmark doses for pathways to those of apical endpoints derived from the same experimental animals. We employ Printex 90 as a model NM due to the rich database of

traditional toxicity information on which our findings can be anchored. Briefly, Printex 90 consists almost entirely of carbon, with very low levels of impurities in terms of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and endotoxins (Bourdon et al., 2012b, Jacobsen et al., 2008 and Saber et al., 2011) They generate reactive oxygen species (Jacobsen et al., 2008), induce DNA strand breaks in vitro and in vivo (Jacobsen et al., 2009 and Saber et al., 2005) and mutations in vitro (Jacobsen et al., 2007) that are associated with oxidative stress (Jacobsen et al., 2011). The ADP ribosylation factor data in this study are from previously published experiments investigating Printex 90 CBNP exposure in C57BL/6 mice at various doses (i.e., vehicle, 18, 54 and 162 μg) collected at several time-points (1, 3 and 28 days) following a single acute instillation (Bourdon et al., 2012a). We previously characterized widespread changes in gene expression involving acute phase response and inflammation, supported by concomitant influxes of pulmonary bronchoalveolar lavage cells (BAL) and increases in tissue-specific DNA strand breaks (Bourdon et al., 2012a and Bourdon et al., 2012b).

g. temperature, wind speed and direction). This data allows the application of the online simulation tool to get an impression at what time the pollution will reach a certain place (e.g. town, beach or harbour) and how it spreads in the river and in the lagoon. If the likely pollutant Tofacitinib ic50 (e.g. E. coli, Enterococci, viruses) is known, a more realistic

simulation is possible. It can take into account e.g. the die-off rates and the decay of problematic organisms and the potential pollutant concentrations at certain places can be estimated. If the authority comes to the conclusion that a risk exists, the simulation results allow to organize an optimized monitoring and to inform local actors when and where to take what kind of water sample. After the laboratory analysis, the data is stored and those locations where water quality thresholds are exceeded automatically receive an

alert email. On a regular and event-driven basis, bathing water quality data and other relevant information are distributed via newsletter to a broader public. The preparation and distribution are supported by a software tool. Our brief phone survey among several end-users showed that improved information about water quality aspects is appreciated. The newsletter structure and content where positively evaluated by users and above 25% planned to further disseminate it. The system is still a prototype and not all functionality is fully in place yet. Among the benefits of such a system are a) a fast and systematic reaction in case of pollution events, b) RG7420 price a spatially and temporal optimized monitoring, c) accelerated alerting and Sodium butyrate communication with subsequent reduced heath risk for the local population and tourists, d) an improved awareness, knowledge and transparency about water quality issues, and e) the support of beach profile development and evaluation according to Directive (2006/7/EC). The development of the system or of parts is pushed forward by IMGW PIB (Institute of Meteorology and Water Management-National Research Institute). The web portal www.baltyk.pogodynka.pl

can serve as an example. The system is still not able to serve as a reliable early-warning system for pollution entering with the river. The permanently recording sensor for particulate matter in the river does not sufficiently indicate microbial pollution. The online simulation tool in the Internet information system is a simplified version of the described GETM flow and GITM particle tracking model. It allows end-users to carry out simple but flexible and fast simulations e.g. after accidental release of microorganisms in the coastal area or after the observation of high concentrations at beaches. In a first step the end-user enters the wind situation (direction and speed). The information system contains pre-simulated and stored, steady state flow simulations for altogether 16 wind situations (combinations of direction and speed). The system uses the one that reflects the users demand best.

e. would explain the overall lower concentration of anthocyanins per head. Consistently, it has been established Adriamycin purchase that inner leaves of lettuce heads have lower concentrations of flavonols than outer leaves- not due to a lack of competence but due to lower incident radiation intensity compared to the situation with outer leaves (Hohl, Neubert, Pforte, Schonhof, & Böhm, 2001). The observation that there was no significant difference anymore between mature heads of warm- and cool-cultivated plants (Fig. 3 and Table 1) may indicate an acclimation of the all the time cool-cultivated plants to the lower temperature.

In these plants the light-harvesting chlorophyll antenna may have been down-scaled and the chlorophyll a/b ratio altered (Havaux & Kloppstech, 2001). Thereby, again, the amount of energy captured and funnelled into the electron transport chain would be reduced and no anthocyanin accumulation would be necessary to encounter an enhanced oxidative load. Regarding quercetin-3-O-(6″-O-malonyl)-glucoside, quercetin-3-O-glucuronide/luteolin-7-O-glucuronide, and quercetin-3-O-glucoside concentration, there were no significant

differences between small heads that were cultivated either cool or warm ( Fig. 3 and Table 1). Furthermore, there were no significant differences concerning these compounds between mature heads cultivated in different temperature regimes ( Fig. 3 and DCLK1 Table 1). If we compare warm- and cool-cultivated Ivacaftor solubility dmso plants after the same number of days, we detect significantly higher

concentrations of quercetin-3-O-(6″-O-malonyl)-glucoside and quercetin-3-O-glucuronide/luteolin-7-O-glucuronide ( Table 2 and Fig. 3). However, the data of Romani et al. (2002) suggest a higher concentration of quercetin glycosides in early growth stage-lettuce compared to later stages. In Section 3.2 we demonstrated that warm- and cool-cultivated plants in our experiment were in different growth stages after 26 days of treatment. Hence, we conclude that the higher concentrations in the cool-cultivated plants were rather due to their growth stages than to the temperature treatment. This is in line with results Løvdal et al. (2010) obtained on leaves of tomato plants (Solanum lycopersicum): Quercetin glycosides were accumulated in response to increasing light intensity and nitrogen depletion rather than to lowered temperature alone. Indeed, quercetin glycoside concentration in red leaf lettuce does respond sensitively to radiation intensity ( Becker et al., 2013). In our experiment, we closely monitored the macro nutrients in the nutrient solution to ensure they are sufficient and the PPFD we applied was constant (247 μmol m−2 s−1). The lowest temperature in our experiment (7 °C) was applied outside of the photoperiod and it, therefore, did not concur with radiation.

Nowadays it is known that excesses of either n-6 or n-3 PUFAs show immunosuppressive effects, and that maintenance of the immune response can be verified by administering LEs with n-6/n-3 FA ratios between 2:1 and 4:1 (Fan et al.,

2003 and Palombo et al., 1999). Soybean oil-based LEs show an n-6/n-3 FA ratio of about 7:1 (Horie, Torrinhas, Nardi, Selleckchem Ion Channel Ligand Library Waitzberg, & Falcão, 2007). SLs show metabolic advantages not provided by physical mixtures of different types of oil. They contain medium- and long-chain FAs on the same glycerol backbone, in contrast with the currently available ELs, which are a physical mixture of separate medium- and long-chain TAGs. One potential advantage of SLs is that they offer a broad choice of FAs in the composition of the TAGs. For example, soybean oil can be used to provide n-6 essential FAs, and FAs from fish oil can display anti-inflammatory effects and contribute to the structure of the central nervous system via their n-3 PUFAs. Due to its high concentration of eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA, C20:5, n-3) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA, C22:6, n-3), fish oil has been shown to have anti-inflammatory potential by interfering with the arachidonic acid pathway and producing the anti-inflammatory eicosanoids prostaglandin E3, leukotriene B5 and thromboxane A3 (Dudrick, Wilmore, Vars, & Rhoads, 1969). PUFAs from the n-3 family also

play a primary role in brain and retina development and DHA has a special role in visual and cerebral function PCI-32765 molecular weight in premature children, probably extending throughout their entire childhood (Innis, 2000), being incorporated Montelukast Sodium into the central nervous system during development of the infant brain (Hartvigsen, Mu, & Hoy, 2003). Many studies have investigated the lipase-catalysed interesterification for the production of n-3 PUFA-enriched fats (Fajardo et al., 2003 and Osório et al., 2001) and a number of procedures patented (Macrae and How, 1983, Matsuo et al., 1979 and Nakamura et al., 1987). Most

of these were kinetic studies on model reactions for acidolysis on a laboratory scale in the presence of organic solvents (Ghazali et al., 1995, Senanayake et al., 2002a, Soumanou et al., 1997 and Senanayake and Shahidi, 2002b). However, in these systems the recovery of the modified TAGs posed a separation problem. The aim of the present study was to model the production of SLs with n-6/n-3 ratios adequate for parenteral nutrition via response surface methodology (RSM), using lipase-catalysed acidolysis in solvent-free media. The process consists of a set of mathematical and statistical methods developed for modelling phenomena and finding combinations of a number of experimental factor variables that will lead to optimum responses. With RSM, several variables are tested simultaneously with a minimum number of trials, according to special experimental designs based on factorial designs (Box et al.

Of these 29 patients, only 2 patients receiving placebo and 1 patient receiving omecamtiv mecarbil in cohort 2 had ≥1-mm ST-segment depression MK-8776 research buy during ETT3.

In the 1 patient taking omecamtiv mecarbil, time to the onset of 1-mm ST-segment depression during ETT3 (235 s) was somewhat shorter than ETT2 (311 s), which was new compared with ETT1 when the patient did not have ST-segment depression. Nineteen patients (20.2%) experienced 29 distinct treatment-emergent AEs (Table 3), including 17.2% on placebo, a 6.5% on omecamtiv mecarbil in cohort 1, and 35.3% on omecamtiv mecarbil in cohort 2. Of the 29 distinct AEs, 23 events were reported as mild in severity, 4 as moderate, and 2 as serious/severe (both occurring in the same patient [as discussed in the following section]). The investigators assessed 14 of the 29 AEs as not related to treatment, 8 of the 29 as possibly related to treatment, and 7 of the 29 as probably related to treatment. The majority of the AEs occurred during the infusion phase; in the oral dosing phase, only 4 AEs were reported (2 in patients on placebo and 2 in patients on

omecamtiv mecarbil). Although AEs were more frequent in cohort 2 for patients on omecamtiv mecarbil, in all but 2 patients they were mild in severity (1 patient with moderate photopsia and 1 patient described in the following section in more detail) and there was no consistent pattern in the types of AEs reported (Table 3, Online Table S4). All AEs had resolved by the end of the study. Two SAEs were reported Enzalutamide concentration in 1 patient receiving omecamtiv mecarbil in cohort 2. After tolerating 18 h of omecamtiv mecarbil infusion without issue, in the last 2 hs of the infusion, the

patient underwent his third exercise test. He terminated ETT3 because of intolerable angina and ST-segment depression, which he also experienced during ETT2. The patient received nitroglycerin during the recovery period of ETT3, during which his symptoms resolved; he subsequently underwent coronary stent implantation for a severe proximal lesion in the left BCKDHA anterior descending artery. After stent implantation, the patient had a peak troponin I level of 2.45 ng/ml. The maximum plasma concentration of omecamtiv mecarbil for this patient was 651 ng/ml. The investigator reported SAEs of acute coronary syndrome and non–Q-wave myocardial infarction associated with percutaneous transluminal coronary angioplasty. The patient was discontinued from the study. No clinically meaningful changes in vital signs (systolic blood pressure/diastolic blood pressure, heart rate, respiratory rate, and oxygen saturation) or cardiac enzymes (troponin I, CPK-MB, and total creatine kinase) for any of the treatment groups were observed. Systolic blood pressure and heart rate data throughout the study are shown in Online Tables S5 and S6.

A species’ colonization

success depends on a combination of its life history traits and the characteristics of the surrounding habitat (Löbel et al., 2009). Sexually dispersed species are assumed to be early colonizers after large-scale disturbances since spores generally have smaller size and are produced in larger numbers compared to asexual propagules. However there is always a trade-off in allocating effort to growth, reproduction and establishment capacity (Lawrey, 1980). Three main morphological lichen groups can be identified: crustose (flat), fruticose (branched) and foliose (leafy) (Budel selleck kinase inhibitor and Scheidegger, 2008). Lichen studies often focus on the “macrolichens” (fruticose and foliose), probably because they are easier to identify, although they only represent a minority of the species. This shortcut is not recommended when drawing conclusions about lichen diversity in its totality since the unique ecological traits of the highly diverse and functionally contrasting crustose “microlichens” will become neglected (Ellis and Coppins, 2006). Epiphytic species are suitable indicator taxa for measuring biodiversity response to retained trees (Rosenvald and Lõhmus, 2008), but almost all studies

AZD6738 purchase have been made just a few years after logging (however, see Peck and McCune, 1997, Hedenås and Hedström, 2007 and Lõhmus and Lõhmus, 2010). The reported effect of aspen retention on associated lichens varies depending on the lichen species in question. Peck and McCune (1997) found a positive effect of retention on cyanolichens but a negative effect on alectorioid and green algal-liches, Hazell and Gustafsson (1999) found positive effects on one cyanolichen

and Hedenås and Ericson (2003) found varying responses of selective cutting; three cyanolichens was less negatively affected by the treatment compared to two crustose lichens. There are no studies on how the composition of the whole lichen community (micro- and macrolichens) on aspen changes after harvest. The epiphytic community on a host tree changes with the development of the Farnesyltransferase host and its surrounding habitat (Yarranton, 1972 and Ruchty et al., 2001). However the intermediate disturbance hypothesis (Connell, 1978) predicts that species diversity is highest at an intermediate time since a disturbance of intermediate intensity and frequency, due to coexistence of early and late colonizers. This development is a reasonable hypothesis also for epiphytic lichens on aspen. We performed the first study on the total lichen flora (macro- and microlichens) on aspen in the boreal zone and how it changes after a clear-cutting disturbance. Retained aspen trees in two age classes of regenerating forest was surveyed. The age classes “clearcut” and “young forest” was harvested 0–4 years or 10–16 years prior to the study.

Among these, the ginsenosides have been well characterized for their functionality, and are thus regarded as the principal components responsible for the pharmacological and biological activities of ginseng [2]. Ginsenosides are composed of a dammarane

backbone with several side chains, including glucose, arabinose, xylose, and rhamnose side chains [3]. Thus far, more than 50 types selleck kinase inhibitor of ginsenosides have been isolated and identified from Panax ginseng Meyer [4]. Based on the differences in their chemical constitutions, the ginsenosides are generally classified into three types: protopanaxadiol (PPD), protopanaxatriol, and olenolic acid. Among those thus far identified, six major ginsenosides (Rb1, Rb2, Rc, Rd, Re, and Rg1) have been determined to account for 90% of the total ginsenoside content of P. ginseng Meyer [5]. In particular, ginsenoside Rb1 is present in greater abundance (usually >20% of total ginsenosides) than any other ginsenosides in P. ginseng, Panax quinquefolius, Panax japonicum and Panax notoginseng BMS-387032 supplier [6]. Earlier reports have shown that the major PPD-type ginsenosides (Rb1, Rb2, Rc, Rd) are metabolized by intestinal bacteria after oral administration to minor ginsenosides such as Rg3, Rh2, F2, and compound K (CK) [7]. In recent years, it has been demonstrated

that the minor ginsenosides possess remarkable pharmaceutical activity and can be readily absorbed by the human body [8]. For example, ginsenoside Rg3 induces tumor cell apoptosis, inhibits tumor cell proliferation and attenuates tumor invasion and metastasis [9] and [10]. In addition, Rg3 serves as a natural cytoprotective agent against environmental carcinogens [11]. Therefore, a variety of studies have focused on the conversion of major ginsenosides to the more active minor ginsenosides via methods such as heating [12], acid treatment [13], alkali treatment [14], and enzymatic conversion [15] and [16]. Chemical transformation induces side reactions including epimerization, hydroxylation,

and hydration, and also generates more environmental pollution L-gulonolactone oxidase [17]. By contrast, microbial or enzymatic approaches have arisen as the predominant conversion modalities, owing to their marked selectivity, mild reaction conditions, and environmental compatibility. Some studies have involved attempts to find suitable microbes or enzymes that can transform Rb1 into minor ginsenosides such as Rd, F2, Rg3, and compound K [4], [17], [18], [19] and [20]. However, the majority of the microorganisms employed in these experiments are not of food-grade. Aspergillus niger strain has been known to be one of the most popular fungi in fermentation of the crops such as soybean and in brewing industry due to its production of various hydrolyzing exoenzymes [21]. In particular, production of glucosidase by using A. niger as a good producer has been recently studied by many researchers [22].