In addition, of the fewer than 5% of V1 cells that showed robust (spatial frequency independent) selectivity to stimulus speed, most were concentrated in the representation of the far periphery. Spatiotemporal interactions in the responses of many cells in the peripheral representation of V1 reduced the ambiguity of responses to high-speed (> 30°/s) signals. These results support the notion of a relative specialization for motion processing in the far peripheral representations of cortical Enzalutamide areas, including V1. “
“Simultaneous recordings of multiple neuron activities

with multi-channel extracellular electrodes are widely used for studying information processing by the brain’s neural circuits. In this method, the recorded signals containing the spike events of a number of adjacent or distant neurons must be correctly sorted into spike trains of individual neurons, and a variety of methods have been proposed for this

spike sorting. However, spike sorting is computationally difficult because the recorded signals are often contaminated by biological noise. Here, we propose a novel method for spike detection, which is the first stage of spike sorting and hence crucially determines overall sorting performance. Our method utilizes a model of extracellular recording data that takes into account variations in spike waveforms, such as the widths and amplitudes of spikes, by detecting the peaks of band-pass-filtered data. We show that the new method significantly improves the cost–performance of multi-channel electrode recordings

by Torin 1 in vitro increasing the number of cleanly sorted neurons. “
“Signal transducer and activator of transcription 3 (STAT3) dramatically increases during the first post-natal week, and supports the survival of mature hippocampal neurons. Recently, we reported that chronic elevation of excitability leads to a loss of STAT3 signal, inducing vulnerability in neurons. The loss of STAT3 signal was due to impaired Erk1/2 activation. While overnight elevation of activity attenuated STAT3 signal, brief low-frequency stimuli, which induce long-term depression, have been shown to activate STAT3. Here we investigated how STAT3 responds to depolarization in mature neurons. A brief depolarization results in the transient Calpain activation of STAT3: it induces calcium influx through L-type voltage-gated calcium channels, which triggers activation of Src family kinases. Src family kinases are required for phosphorylation of STAT3 at Tyr-705 and Ser-727. PTyr-705 is Janus kinase (JAK)-dependent, while PSer-727 is dependent on Akt, the Ser/Thr kinase. Both PTyr-705 and PSer-727 are necessary for nuclear translocation of STAT3 in these neurons. Chronic elevation of spontaneous activity by an A-type potassium blocker, 4-aminopyridine (4-AP), also induced the transient phosphorylation of STAT3, which after 4 h fell to basal levels despite the presence of 4-AP.

1b). In previous Phos-tag assays

(Sogame et al., 2011b), protein phosphorylation was detected in a broader molecular weight range (20–80 kDa). However, in the present study (Figs 1, 3c and 4), the phosphorylation signal was difficult to detect in a molecular weight range higher than 50 kDa. This may reflect an age-related difference between cultures used. In the previous study, cells were cultured for 0.5–1.0 days, whereas in the present study, cells were cultured for 1.0–2.0 days, before encystment induction. Trametinib molecular weight As shown in Fig. 2a, immunoblotting analysis using antiphosphoserine antibody showed that the antibody cross-reacted with all of the phosphoproteins detected by Phos-tag/ECL, although some Epacadostat in vitro signals from the antibody did not coincide in intensity with those obtained with the Phos-tag/ECL system, most probably reflecting the epitope specificity of the antibody. These results indicate that encystment-dependent phosphorylated proteins have serine residues. Therefore, the localization of the phosphorylated proteins was visualized

by immunofluorescence microscopy (Fig. 2b) using antiphosphoserine antibody. In Fig. 2b, each pair (b-1/b-2, b-3/b-4, and b-5/b-6) of the photomicrographs represents Nomarski (left) and immunofluorescence (right) images of identical cells labeled with antiphosphoserine antibody. The macronucleus (ma) and Fenbendazole other compartments were immunostained in encystment-induced cells (Fig. 2b-4), but no fluorescence was detected

in cells in which encystment was not induced (Fig. 2b-2) or encystment-induced cells treated with only secondary antibody (Fig. 2b-6). To determine which phosphorylated proteins are localized in the macronucleus, isolated macronuclei (Fig. 3a and b; left, Nomarski images; right, DAPI-fluorescence images) were analyzed by CBB staining and biotinylated Phos-tag/ECL detection assays (Fig. 3c). The isolated macronuclei aggregated through sticky mucus-like materials (Fig. 3a-1 and 2). Such clumps of macronuclei were dispersed by treatment with lysozyme (Fig. 3b-1 and 2), suggesting that the sticky materials may have been mucopolysaccharide. Judging from the photomicrographs of isolated macronuclei (Fig. 3a and b), the samples seem to have contained mainly macronuclei. Among the proteins (Fig. 3c, P-tag ‘Cells’) phosphorylated by encystment induction, an intense signal of p33 was detected in the isolated macronuclei sample (without treatment of lysozyme) (Fig. 3c, ‘P-tag, Macronuclei’), although weak signals of several proteins (p27, p31, and p37) were detected. A major protein contained in the band corresponding to 33 kDa obtained from isolated macronuclei sample (Fig.

A blastn sequence similarity search showed that the majority of the sequences (56%) were homologous to the uncultured bacterial species, underlining the vast untapped bacterial diversity. “
“Endophytic fungi colonize plants without causing symptoms of disease and can enhance the resistance

of their host to pathogens. We cultivated 53 fungal strains from wild lima bean (Phaseolus lunatus) and investigated their effects on pathogens using in vitro assays and experiments in planta. Most strains were annotated as Rhizopus, Fusarium, Penicillium, Epacadostat mw Cochliobolus, and Artomyces spp. by the sequence of their 18S rRNA gene. In vitro confrontation assays between endophytes and three pathogens (the bacteria Pseudomonas syringae pv. syringae and Enterobacter sp. strain FCB1, and the fungus Colletotrichum lindemuthianum) revealed strong and mainly symmetric reciprocal effects: endophyte and pathogen either mutually inhibited (mainly Enterobacter FCB1 and Colletotrichum) or facilitated (P. syringae) the growth of each other. In planta, the endophytes had a strong inhibitory effect on P. syringae when they colonized the plant before the bacterium, whereas infection was facilitated when P. syringae colonized the plant before the endophyte. Infection with Enterobacter FCB1 was facilitated when the bacterium colonized the plant before or on the same INCB018424 manufacturer day with the endophyte, but not when the endophyte was

present before the bacterium. The order of arrival determines whether fungal endophytes enhance

plant resistance to bacterial pathogens or facilitate disease. “
“Deferoxamine (DFO), an FDA-approved iron chelator used for treatment of iron poisoning, affects bacteria as iron availability is intimately connected with growth and several virulence determinants. However, little is known about the effect on oral pathogens. In this study, the effect of DFO on Porphyromonas gingivalis, a major periodontopathogen which has an essential growth requirement for hemin (Fe3+-protoporphyrin IX), was evaluated. The viability of P. gingivalisW83 was not affected by 0.06–0.24 mM DFO, whereas the doubling time of the bacterium was considerably prolonged by DFO. The inhibitory effect was evident at earlier stages of growth and reduced by supplemental iron. UV-visible spectra using the pigments from 17-DMAG (Alvespimycin) HCl P. gingivalis cells grown on blood agar showed that DFO inhibited μ-oxo bisheme formation by the bacterium. DFO decreased accumulation and energy-driven uptake of hemin by P. gingivalis. Antibacterial effect of H2O2 and metronidazole against P. gingivalis increased in the presence of DFO. Collectively, DFO is effective for hemin deprivation in P. gingivalis suppressing the growth and increasing the susceptibility of the bacterium to other antimicrobial agents such as H2O2 and metronidazole. Further experiments are necessary to show that DFO may be used as a therapeutic agent for periodontal disease.

lectularis for O. horni (RA) and Nasonia vitripennis for C. heimi

(TLR). Three O. horni (T1, TER30 and T21) and two Odontotermes spp. (T3 and THYD) formed two separate sister clades with Wolbachia from K. flavicollis (Fig. 2). Odontotermes horni (MCT) and C. heimi (TERMITE3) were found to be divergent within representatives of F supergroup Wolbachia included in this analysis (Fig. 2). All the strains clustering in F and B supergroups on the basis of MLST also grouped with the respective supergroup Wolbachia on the basis of 16S rRNA gene sequences. Odontotermes Wolbachia were found close to Microcerotermes sp. (RA), Mansonella (MCT and G29), whereas four Wolbachia from Odontotermes spp. (THYD, T1, TER30 and T21) formed a separate sister clade divergent from the Coptotermes clade within supergroup F. O. horni (T2) clustered selleck kinase inhibitor with supergroup B Wolbachia included

in the analysis (Fig. 3). The phylogenetic tree structure revealed two major clusters for Odontotermes spp. from this study (Fig. 4). Morphologically well-identified Hydroxychloroquine seven O. horni showed strong clustering with O. horni (EU258629 and EU258630) from the GenBank database reported from Punjab, India. Five other Odontotermes species identified morphologically up to the genus level only formed a sister clade with Odontotermes zambesiensis and O. horni (Fig. 4). Morphologically well-identified two Coptotermes hemi were phylogenetically close to the reported Indian C. heimi (AY558908) from the GenBank database (Fig. 4). This is the first report of the occurrence of Wolbachia in the Odontotermes genus. Infection of Wolbachia in C. heimi has also been detected for the first time, although its occurrence in Coptotermes species (C. acinaciformis and C. secundus) Demeclocycline has been reported earlier. During this study, all positive PCR-purified

products were sequenced directly with the same primers used for amplification. The possibility of double or multiple infections in the 14 positive colonies was unlikely as readable chromatograms were obtained, suggesting amplification of a unique copy during the reaction, although this cannot be ruled out. The remarkable diversity of Wolbachia strains in the examined termites was detected with the help of MLST. Supergroup B and F Wolbachia were found in both the genera under study (Odontotermes and Coptotermes) (Table 1). None of the Wolbachia found in this study clustered with those previously found in supergroup H (Zootermopsis spp.) and supergroup A (Cubitermes sp. and I. snyderi). According to Baldo et al. (2006), when the complete set of the five MLST gene sequences cannot be obtained for a strain, single-gene alleles and partial MLST allelic profiles can be submitted to the database. Partial data provide useful allele diversity information, allowing the profile database to grow.

It is worth mentioning that sPBP6, which is the next nearest homolog of DacD, is inactive on pentapeptide substrate (Chowdhury et al., 2010). The crystal structures of sPBP5 and sPBP6 (Nicholas et al., 2003; Chen et al., 2009) show a similar secondary structure with no gross architectural differences. In the absence of crystal structure, CD spectral analysis would be of utmost importance to elucidate the biophysical characteristics of sDacD. It was evident from the CD spectra that purified protein was in a native conformation with characteristics of the molecular

spectra selleck inhibitor of alpha and beta structures, indicating the protein was active and stable at room temperature. Unlike sPBP5 and sPBP6 (Chowdhury et al., 2010), more beta-sheets were detected in sDacD (Table 3, Supporting Information, Fig. S1). The occurrence of a larger amount of β-sheet structure in sDacD may cause some structural alteration, which might exert different biological activity than PBP5.

Because DacD shared a high level of aa identity with PBP5, homology modelling (or comparative protein structure modelling) could be applied to generate the three-dimensional conformation of sDacD. For model building, the program modeller 9v1 was used with the pdb coordinate, 3BEC chain A (crystal structure of E. coli PBP5 in complex with a peptide-mimetic cephalosporin; Sauvage et al., 2008) as template. The secondary structure prediction by GDC-0941 in vivo predict protein and psipred suggested that sDacD was a αβ protein with a larger amount of β-sheet structure (Table 3 and Fig. S2), which was consistent with the results obtained from CD spectroscopic analyses. The model of lowest energy value had 94.9% residues in the most favoured region in the Ramachandran plot and 98.35% residues had an average Carnitine palmitoyltransferase II 3D-1D score above 0.2, as obtained through verify3d profile (Fig. 2), which affirms a well derived model. The model has been

deposited to the PMDB server (ID PM0076504). Like sPBP5, the sDacD model is composed of two Domains placed perpendicular to each other. Domain II is β-sheet-rich, whereas Domain I is composed of both α-helices and β-sheets (Fig. 2a). There is a relative increase in beta-sheet in Domain I of sDacD as compared with sPBP5. Comparison of the calculated secondary structure of the sDacD model generated by stride with that of sPBP5 indicates that residues Gln 38-Arg 39 and His158-Ser159-Ser160 of sDacD create a beta-sheet structure, whereas the respective positions of sPBP5 create coils and turns. Moreover, the Glu 230 and Met 233 of sPBP5 Domain I form turns, whereas the corresponding residues (Gln 229 and Arg 232, respectively) in the sDacD model adopt a beta-conformation. Therefore, both similarities and the differences exist when we take a closer view at the active-site of sDacD and sPBP5.

Prior work had shown that alpha-band activity was differentially deployed depending on the modality of the

cued task. Here, we asked whether this activity would, in turn, be differentially deployed depending on whether participants had just made a switch of task or were being asked to simply repeat the task. It is well established that performance speed and accuracy are poorer on switch than on repeat trials. Here, however, the use of instructional cues completely mitigated these classic switch-costs. Measures of alpha-band synchronisation and desynchronisation showed that there was indeed greater and earlier differential deployment of alpha-band activity on switch high throughput screening assay vs. repeat trials. Contrary to our hypothesis, this differential effect was entirely Z-VAD-FMK order due to changes in the amount of desynchronisation observed during switch

and repeat trials of the visual task, with more desynchronisation over both posterior and frontal scalp regions during switch-visual trials. These data imply that particularly vigorous, and essentially fully effective, anticipatory biasing mechanisms resolved the competition between competing auditory and visual inputs when a rapid switch of task was required. When individuals are required to switch rapidly from execution of one task to another, goal-related task networks and attentional mechanisms are engaged to reconfigure task-specific networks, suppressing activity within circuits responsible for performance of the old task and amplifying preparatory neural

processes for the anticipated novel task (Foxe & Simpson, 2005; Foxe et al., 2005). That is, competition between two potential task-set configurations must be resolved so that an effective strategy shift can be enacted. Often there is a significant performance cost in the terms of both speed and accuracy upon the first instance of a new task that is taken to reflect these reconfiguration processes (Jersild, 1927; Wylie & Allport, 2000; Wylie et al., 2004b, 2009). Under many such task-switching scenarios, switch costs dissipate rapidly, with near ceiling levels of performance achieved on just the second instance of the new task (De Sanctis et al., 2009). The implication is that the anticipatory neural reconfigurations necessary for optimal performance of a new task are not always achieved in one step; rather, it often takes performance of at least one instance of the new task to reach optimal performance (Wylie et al., 2003a). Alternatively, if an informational cue informs participants of an upcoming task switch, and sufficient time is then allowed to elapse between the cue and the stimulus to be acted upon, individuals can accomplish an entirely effective task-set reconfiguration in that little or no switch cost is then observed (Wylie et al., 2009).

Median nerve cross-sectional area (CSA) and flattening ratio (FR) at three different levels, proximal to tunnel inlet, at tunnel inlet and tunnel outlet, and flexor retinaculum thickness, were measured. Then, comparisons between ultrasonography and NCS were made. We assessed 180 wrists, of which 120 were electrophysiologically confirmed as CTS diseased hands and 60 nondiseased hands in 90 patients (83 women and seven men). The mean median nerve CSA at the tunnel inlet was 13.31 ± 3.23 mm2 in CTS diseased hands and 8.57 ± 0.82 mm2 in nondiseased hands. Post hoc comparisons between

the diseased and nondiseased hands demonstrated that the CSA at various levels of the median nerve were significantly greater in the CTS diseased hands than the nondiseased hands (P = 0.001). CSA at the tunnel inlet with a threshold of 9.15 mm2 gave the best diagnostic accuracy with a sensitivity and specificity of 99.2% Trichostatin A mouse and 88.3%, BMS-354825 respectively. The difference in cross-sectional area of the median nerve in mild, moderate and severe CTS was statistically significant. Ultrasonographic measurement of the CSA of the median nerve at the carpal tunnel inlet is useful in diagnosing and grading CTS. “
“Interleukin (IL)-22 regulates the pathogenesis of autoimmune diseases. The role of

IL-22+ T-cells in the pathogenesis of rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is unclear. This study aimed at examining the levels of plasma IL-22 and the frequency of IL-22+ CD4+ T-cells in patients with RA. A total of

30 RA patients and 18 gender- and age-matched healthy controls were recruited. Their peripheral blood mononuclear cells were isolated and stimulated with phorbol 12-myristate 13-acetate (PMA) and ionomycin for 6 h. The frequency of IL-22+, interferon (IFN)-γ+ and IL-17A+ CD4+ T-cells was characterized by flow cytometry. The levels of plasma IFN-γ, IL-17A and IL-22, serum C-reactive protein (CRP), rheumatoid factor (RF), anticyclic citrullinated peptide antibody (CCP) and erythrocyte sedimentation rate (ESR) were measured. The frequency of IFNγ–IL-17A–IL-22+, IFNγ–IL-17A+IL-22+, and IFNγ+IL-17A–IL-22+ T-cells in CD4+ T-cells and the levels of plasma IFNγ, IL-17 and Rucaparib ic50 IL-22 in RA patients were significant higher than those in healthy controls. The percentages of IL-17A+IL-22+CD4+ T-cells were correlated positively with the frequency of Th22 or Th17 cells in the RA patients. The percentages of IL-22+CD4+ T-cells were correlated positively with the values of disease activity score (DAS28) in the RA patients. The percentages of Th22 cells were correlated positively with the levels of plasma IL-22 in the RA patients. Our data suggest that IL-22+CD4+ T-cells may contribute to the pathogenesis of RA and that therapeutic targeting of IL-22 may be valuable for the intervention of RA. “
“Adult-onset Still’s disease (AOSD) is a rare disease.

, 2011). Triple alanine substitution at the HHH motif leads to the complete loss of DNA-binding activity and the repressor function of IrrRl, whereas a single mutation at H45 or H65 does not have this effect (Singleton et al., 2010). The Fur family contains transcriptional regulators that sense different metals and have diverse biological functions. However, proteins in the

Fur family exhibit a similar architecture, with an N-terminal DNA-binding domain and a C-terminal dimerization domain. Crystal structures of many Fur proteins have been reported, including those from Pseudomonas aeruginosa (Pohl et al., 2003) and Helicobacter pylori (Dian et al., 2011), which has improved the understanding of the mechanisms of metal sensing and gene regulation. In contrast, the crystal structure of Irr has not yet been solved. The P. aeruginosa Fur (FurPa) protein has two metal-binding sites: a structural

selleck kinase inhibitor zinc-binding site (H32, E80, H89, and E100) and a putative regulatory iron-sensing site (H86, D88, E107 and H124) (Pohl et al., 2003) (Fig. 1). Some of the amino acid residues in the metal-binding sites of FurPa are also conserved in Irr proteins (Fig. 1). Unlike FurPa, the H. pylori Fur (FurHp) GPCR Compound Library protein contains three metal-binding sites, designated S1, S2 and S3 (Dian et al., 2011) (Fig. 1). S1 is the structural zinc-binding site and includes four cysteines (C102, C105, C142 and C145) that are absent in FurPa and Irr proteins (Fig. 1). S1 is located in the C-terminal domain and is required for the dimerization of FurHp. S2 is the regulatory site and is essential for the DNA-binding activity of FurHp. Metal binding to S2 leads to a conformational change in FurHp for DNA interaction. The ligands of S2 are different on chain A and chain B of a FurHp dimer. S2 on chain B is co-ordinated by H42, E90, H97 and H99, whereas S2 on chain A is co-ordinated by H42, E90, H97, H99 and E110. S2 is similar to the structural site

of FurPa. S3 contains H96, D98, E117 and H134, which corresponds to the regulatory site of FurPa. S3 is important, but not necessary, Carnitine palmitoyltransferase II for the DNA-binding activity of FurHp and may play a role in adjusting the conformation and the DNA-binding affinity of S2 (Dian et al., 2011). Agrobacterium tumefaciens is a phytopathogenic bacterium and a member of the Alphaproteobacteria group that induces the formation of crown gall tumours on dicotyledonous plants. The amino sequence of A. tumefaciens Irr (IrrAt) protein has a high identity with Irr protein from the close relative R. leguminosarum, IrrRl (84%) and has a moderate level of identity with IrrBj (53%). IrrRl functions in collaboration with rhizobial iron regulator (RirA) to control iron homeostasis (Todd et al., 2006). RirA, a protein from the Rrf2 family, is present exclusively in Alphaproteobacteria, and has evolved to adopt many typical Fur functions.

However, the transformation efficiency is still too low to be used routinely as a tool for generating mutations. The reason for such a low efficiency could be due to a number of factors. First, the restriction system could be an important barrier for transformation using foreign DNA. In our study, although we could obtain a similar number of transformants using equal amounts of genomic and PCR-generated DNA, on a molar basis, the molar concentration

of the target DNA is ∼1000 times higher in the PCR amplicon than in the genomic DNA. Attempts to use equal molar concentration of the target DNA of the PCR amplicon as the chromosomal DNA did not yield any transformants, indicating that the putative restriction system in V. parvula is probably functioning. Afatinib supplier Another reason for the low transformation efficiency could be attributed to the presence of large amounts of slime [extracellular polysaccharide (EPS)] on the cell surface. This structure

makes the cell aggregates during centrifugation and washing with 10% glycerol, an electroporation buffer used for many bacteria. Although inclusion of 1 mM MgCl2 in the electroporation buffer could disperse the cells, it probably could not remove all the slime on the cell surface. Excessive KU-57788 in vivo EPS could have an adverse effect on DNA entry and affect transformation efficiency. Another barrier for further developing a robust genetic transformation system in veillonellae is the identification of an appropriate selective marker. This is limited so far by the fact that V. parvula PK1910 is insensitive to many of the antibiotics commonly used in genetic transformation with other bacteria, such as kanamycin, spectinomycin, tetracycline, erythromycin, and ampicillin. In this study, we used the mutant rpsL, which confers streptomycin resistance, as a selective marker for allelic replacement. Unfortunately this mutation is recessive to the wild-type rpsL (Drecktrah et al.,

2010), and thus cannot be used as a selective marker for gene knock-out studies in V. parvula. In some bacteria, similar obstacles could be overcome using nonantibiotic selection markers or auxotrophic mutants as recipient strains Selleck MG132 for transformation (Morona et al., 1991; Goh & Good, 2008; Vidal et al., 2008; Norris et al., 2009). We are currently testing this possibility as well. Also, it has been reported that plasmids exist in many Veillonella isolates (Arai et al., 1984), which makes it possible to build a shuttle vector between E. coli and veillonellae. We have recently isolated a plasmid from a clinical strain of V. parvula, and are currently testing its utility as a shuttle vector. We thank the Kolenbrander laboratory for providing V. parvula strain PK1910. This work was supported by NIH grant R15DE019940. “
“Streptococcal collagen-like protein 1 (Scl1) is a virulence factor on the surface of group A Streptococcus (GAS).

Although KARs display close structural homology with AMPA receptors, they serve quite distinct functions. A great deal of our knowledge of the molecular and functional properties Fulvestrant in vivo of KARs comes from their study in the hippocampus. This review aims at summarising the functions of KARs in the regulation of the activity of hippocampal synaptic circuits at the adult stage and throughout development. We focus on the variety of roles played by KARs in physiological conditions of activation, at pre- and postsynaptic sites, in different cell types and

through either metabotropic or ionotropic actions. Finally, we present some of the few attempts to link the role of KARs in the regulation of local hippocampal circuits to the behavioural functions of the hippocampus in health and diseases. “
“Plasma levels of corticosterone exhibit both circadian and ultradian rhythms. The circadian component of these rhythms is regulated by the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN). Our studies investigate the importance of the SCN in regulating ultradian rhythmicity. Two approaches were used to dissociate the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis from normal circadian input in rats: (i) exposure to a constant light (LL) environment and (ii) electrolytic

lesioning of the SCN. Blood was sampled using an automated sampling system. As expected, both treatments resulted in a loss of the circadian pattern of corticosterone secretion. Ultradian pulsatile secretion of corticosterone GBA3 however, was maintained across the 24 h in all animals. TSA HDAC purchase Furthermore, the loss of SCN input revealed an underlying relationship between locomotor and HPA activity. In control (LD) rats there was no clear correlation between ultradian locomotor activity and hormone secretion, whereas,

in LL rats, episodes of ultradian activity were consistently followed by periods of increased pulsatile hormone secretion. These data clearly demonstrate that the ultradian rhythm of corticosterone secretion is generated through a mechanism independent of the SCN input, supporting recent evidence for a sub-hypothalamic pulse generator. “
“The 6-hydroxydopamine (6-OHDA) neurotoxic lesion of the midbrain dopamine (DA) system is one of the most widely used techniques for modelling Parkinson’s disease in rodents. The majority of studies using this approach, however, largely limit their analysis to lesioning acutely, and looking at behavioural deficits and the number of surviving tyrosine hydroxylase (TH)-stained cells in the midbrain. Here we have analysed additional characteristics that occur following intrastriatal delivery of 6-OHDA, providing better understanding of the neurodegenerative process. Female C57/Black mice were given lesions at 10 weeks old, and killed at several different time points postoperatively (3 and 6 h, 1, 3, 6, 9 and 12 days).